1.2 Peru Civilization 

The history of Peru spans 10 millennia, extending back through several stages of cultural development along the country's desert coastline and in the Andes mountains. Peru's coast was home to the Norte Chico civilization, the oldest civilization in the Americas and one of the six cradles of civilization in the world. 

When the Spanish arrived in the sixteenth century, Peru was the homeland of the highland Inca Empire, the largest and most advanced state in pre-Columbian America. After the conquest of the Incas, the Spanish Empire established a Viceroyalty with jurisdiction over most of its South American domains. 

Peru declared independence from Spain in 1821, but achieved independence only after the Battle of Ayacucho three years later.

Modern historiography of Peru divides its history into three main periods:

• A Pre Hispanic period, which lasts from the first civilizations of the region to the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire.

• A Viceregal or Colonial period, which lasts from the aforementioned conquest to the Peruvian declaration of independence.

• A Republican period, which lasts from the war of independence to the current day.

Pre-Columbian cultures

Andean civilizations of Peru

Norte ChicoCaral pyramids in the arid Supe Valley, some 20 kilometres from the Pacific coast.

The Moche culture is world-renowned for its pottery, in picture a condor from about 300 CE.

Pikillacta administrative centre, built by the Wari culture in Cusco.

Chimú vessel representing a fisherman on a caballito de totora (1100–1400 CE).

Tiwanaku and Wari culture at its largest territorial extent, 950 CE.

Hunting tools dating back to more than 11,000 years ago have been found inside the caves of Pachacamac, Telarmachay, Junin, and Lauricocha. Some of the oldest civilizations appeared circa 6000 BC in the coastal provinces of Chilca and Paracas, and in the highland province of Callejón de Huaylas. 

Over the next three thousand years, inhabitants switched from nomadic lifestyles to cultivating land, as evidenced from sites such as Jiskairumoko, Kotosh, and HuacaPrieta. Cultivation of plants such as corn and cotton began, as well as the domestication of animals such as the wild ancestors of the llama, the alpaca and the guinea pig, as seen in the 6000 BC dated Camelid relief paintings in the Mollepunko caves in Callalli. Inhabitants practised spinning and knitting of cotton and wool, basketry, and pottery.

As these inhabitants became sedentary, farming allowed them to build settlements. As a result, new societies emerged along the coast and in the Andean mountains. The first known city in the Americas was Caral, located in the Supe Valley 200 km north of Lima. It was built in approximately 2500 BC.

The remnants of this civilization, also known as Norte Chico, consists of approximately 30 pyramidal structures built up in receding terraces ending in a flat roof; some of them measuring up to 20 metres in height. Caral is regarded as one of several cradles of civilization around the world where civilization emerged independent of other civilizations.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k68CVL8LCXw

Inca civilization​​

The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru between c. 1400 and 1533 CE, and their empire eventually extended across western South America from Quito in the north to Santiago in the south. It is the largest empire ever seen in the Americas and the largest in the world at that time.

Undaunted by the often harsh Andean environment, the Incas conquered people and exploited landscapes in such diverse settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and tropical jungle. Famed for their unique art and architecture, they constructed finely-built and imposing buildings wherever they conquered, and they're spectacular adaptation of natural landscapes with terracing, highways, and mountaintop settlements continues to impress modern visitors at such world-famous sites as Machu Picchu.

Quipu: The Ancient Computer of the Inca Civilization

What is a quipu?

A quipu, also spelled khipu, qipuor kipu, is an intricate system of knotted strings of various colours that store and convey information. Quipu literally translates to “knot” in Quechua. Many ancient Andean cultures used this knot system, including the Inca. Sometimes referred to as “talking knots,”

History of quipus

The Inca used quipus throughout their reign in the Andes, but they certainly weren’t the first culture to use them. Quipus were actually found in the ruins here 4,000 years before the Incas showed up,” says MacQuarrie. Their use dates as far back as 2600 BCE up until 1532 CE. They were very effective as a universal method of communication between groups across the region that spoke different languages. As MacQuarrie shares, “The Incas started from one valley and they extended 2,500–3,000 miles in length with different cultures, different languages, different topographies, different resources — the only way they could make it work was to use quipus.”.